1.1.1

State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data.

1.1.2

Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values.

1.1.3

State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

1.1.4

Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples.

1.1.5

Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables.

1.1.6

Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a causal relationship between two variables.

2.1.1

Outline the cell theory.

2.1.2

Discuss the evidence for the cell theory.

2.1.3

State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.

2.1.4

Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit.

2.1.5

Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification.

2.1.6

Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

2.1.7

State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

2.1.8

Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

2.1.9

State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways.

2.1.10

Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells.

2.2.1

Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.

2.2.2

Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure.

2.2.3

Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli.

2.2.4

State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.

2.3.1

Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

2.3.2

Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure.

2.3.3

Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.

2.3.4

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

2.3.5

State three differences between plant and animal cells.

2.3.6

Outline two roles of extracellular components.

2.4.1

Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

2.4.2

Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

2.4.3

List the functions of membrane proteins.

2.4.4

Define diffusion and osmosis.

2.4.5

Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

2.4.6

Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.

2.4.7

Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

2.4.8

Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis.

2.5.1

Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis.

2.5.2

State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.

2.5.3

State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

2.5.4

Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase).

2.5.5

Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

2.5.6

State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

3.1.1

State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

3.1.2

State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium.

3.1.3

State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 3.1.2.

3.1.4

Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show their polarity and hydrogen bond formation.

3.1.5

Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water.

3.1.6

Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium.

3.2.1

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.

3.2.2

Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure.

3.2.3

List three examples each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

3.2.4

State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants.

3.2.5

Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between fatty acids, glycerol and triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides.

3.2.6

State three functions of lipids.

3.2.7

Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage.

3.3.1

Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate.

3.3.2

State the names of the four bases in DNA.

3.3.3

Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single strand.

3.3.4

Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds.

3.3.5

Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA.

3.4.1

Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase.

3.4.2

Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA.

3.4.3

State that DNA replication is semi-conservative.

3.5.1

Compare the structure of RNA and DNA.

3.5.2

Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase.

3.5.3

Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases.

3.5.4

Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation.

3.5.5

Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide.

3.6.1

Define enzyme and active site.

3.6.2

Explain enzyme–substrate specificity.

3.6.3

Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity.

3.6.4

Define denaturation.

3.6.5

Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk.

3.7.1

Define cell respiration.

3.7.2

State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP.

3.7.3

Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP.

3.7.4

Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP.

3.8.1

State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

3.8.2

State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colours).

3.8.3

State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment.

3.8.4

Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll.

3.8.5

State that light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen.

3.8.6

State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules.

3.8.7

Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass.

3.8.8

Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis.

4.1.1

State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.

4.1.2

Define gene, allele and genome.

4.1.3

Define gene mutation.

4.1.4

Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle-cell anemia.

4.2.1

State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei.

4.2.2

Define homologous chromosomes.

4.2.3

Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells.

4.2.4

Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

4.2.5

State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure.

4.2.6

State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities.

4.2.7

Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non-disjunction has occurred.

4.3.1

Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross.

4.3.2

Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid.

4.3.3

State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles).

4.3.4

Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles.

4.3.5

Explain how the sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans.

4.3.6

State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans.

4.3.7

Define sex linkage.

4.3.8

Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex linkage.

4.3.9

State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes.

4.3.10

Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles.

4.3.11

Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance.

4.3.12

Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts.

4.4.1

Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.

4.4.2

State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size.

4.4.3

State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling.

4.4.4

Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations.

4.4.5

Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations.

4.4.6

Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome. 

4.4.7

State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal.

4.4.8

Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase.

4.4.9

State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals.

4.4.10

Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification.

4.4.11

Define clone.

4.4.12

Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells.

4.4.13

Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

5.1.1

Define species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem and ecology.

5.1.2

Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph.

5.1.3

Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs.

5.1.4

Describe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms).

5.1.5

Describe what is meant by a food web.

5.1.6

Define trophic level.

5.1.7

Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.

5.1.8

Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

5.1.9

State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

5.1.10

Explain the energy flow in a food chain.

5.1.11

State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

5.1.12

Explain reasons for the shape of pyramids of energy.

5.1.13

Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled.

5.1.14

State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients.

5.2.1

Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

5.2.2

Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records.

5.2.3

Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect.

5.2.4

Outline the precautionary principle.

5.2.5

Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

5.2.6

Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems.

5.3.1

Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration.

5.3.2

Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

5.3.3

Explain the reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases.

5.3.4

List three factors that set limits to population increase.

5.4.1

Define evolution.

5.4.2

Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures.

5.4.3

State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.

5.4.4

Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival.

5.4.5

State that the members of a species show variation.

5.4.6

Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.

5.4.7

Explain how natural selection leads to evolution.

5.4.8

Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

5.5.1

Outline the binomial system of nomenclature.

5.5.2

List seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa—kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species—using an example from two different kingdoms for each level.

5.5.3

Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta.

5.5.4

Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda.

5.5.5

Apply and design a key for a group of up to eight organisms.