Units of Study

Be sure you check out the action verbs list to ensure you are addressing each syllabus statement with the depth required.

	Topic 1: Statistical analysis
	Topic 2:  Cells
	Topic 3:  The Chemistry of Life
	Topic 4:  Genetics
	Topic 5:  Ecology and Evolution
	Topic 6:  Human Health and Physiology
	Topic 7:  Nucleic Acids and Proteins
	Topic 8:  Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis
	Topic 9:  Plant Science
	Topic 10:  HL Genetics
	Topic 11:  HL Human Health and Physiology
	Option D:  Evolution
	Option E:  Neurobiology and Behavior
	Option F:  Microbes and Biotechnology
	Option G:  Ecology and Conservation
	Option H:  Further Human Physiology

Topic 1: Statistical analysis

Topic 2:  Cells

Topic 3:  The Chemistry of Life

Topic 4:  Genetics

Topic 5:  Ecology and Evolution

Topic 6: Human Health and Physiology

6.1.1	Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential.
6.1.2	Explain the need for enzymes in digestion.
6.1.3	State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.
6.1.4	Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system.
6.1.5	Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
6.1.6	Distinguish between absorption and assimilation.
6.1.7	Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion.
6.2.1	Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart.
6.2.2	State that the coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients.
6.2.3	Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.
6.2.4	Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline).
6.2.5	Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.
6.2.6	State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets.
6.2.7	State that the following are transported by the blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat.
6.3.1	Define pathogen.
6.3.2	Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.
6.3.3	Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens.
6.3.4	Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues.
6.3.5	Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.
6.3.6	Explain antibody production.
6.3.7	Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.
6.3.8	Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.
6.4.1	Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration.
6.4.2	Explain the need for a ventilation system.
6.4.3	Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.
6.4.4	Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
6.4.5	Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.
6.5.1	State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses.
6.5.2	Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.
6.5.3	State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.
6.5.4	Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization).
6.5.5	Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron.
6.5.6	Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.
6.5.7	State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood.
6.5.8	State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance.
6.5.9	Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.
6.5.10	Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.
6.5.11	Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and α and β cells in the pancreatic islets.
6.5.12	Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes.
6.6.1	Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems.
6.6.2	Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), estrogen and progesterone.
6.6.3	Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and thickening of the endometrium.
6.6.4	List three roles of testosterone in males.
6.6.5	Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
6.6.6	Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF.

Topic 7:  Nucleic Acids and Proteins

7.1.1	Describe the structure of DNA, including the antiparallel strands, 3’–5’ linkages and hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines.
7.1.2	Outline the structure of nucleosomes.
7.1.3	State that nucleosomes help to supercoil chromosomes and help to regulate transcription.
7.1.4	Distinguish between unique or single-copy genes and highly repetitive sequences in nuclear DNA.
7.1.5	State that eukaryotic genes can contain exons and introns.
7.2.1	State that DNA replication occurs in a 5 --> 3 direction.
7.2.2	Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes, including the role of enzymes (helicase, DNA polymerase, RNA primase and DNA ligase), Okazaki fragments and deoxynucleoside triphosphates.
7.2.3	State that DNA replication is initiated at many points in eukaryotic chromosomes.
7.3.1	State that transcription is carried out in a direction.
7.3.2	Distinguish between the sense and antisense strands of DNA.
7.3.3	Explain the process of transcription in prokaryotes, including the role of the promoter region, RNA polymerase, nucleoside triphosphates and the terminator.
7.3.4	State that eukaryotic RNA needs the removal of introns to form mature mRNA.
7.4.1	Explain that each tRNA molecule is recognized by a tRNA-activating enzyme that binds a specific amino acid to the tRNA, using ATP for energy.
7.4.2	Outline the structure of ribosomes, including protein and RNA composition, large and small subunits, three tRNA binding sites and mRNA binding sites.
7.4.3	State that translation consists of initiation, elongation, translocation and termination.
7.4.4	State that translation occurs in a direction.
7.4.5	Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a peptide bond between two amino acids.
7.4.6	Explain the process of translation, including ribosomes, polysomes, start codons and stop codons.
7.4.7	State that free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell, and that bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for lysosomes.
7.5.1	Explain the four levels of protein structure, indicating the significance of each level.
7.5.2	Outline the difference between fibrous and globular proteins, with reference to two examples of each protein type.
7.5.3	Explain the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids.
7.5.4	State four functions of proteins, giving a named example of each.
7.6.1	State that metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions.
7.6.2	Describe the induced-fit model.
7.6.3	Explain that enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse.
7.6.4	Explain the difference between competitive and non-competitive inhibition, with reference to one example of each.
7.6.5	Explain the control of metabolic pathways by end-product inhibition, including the role of allosteric sites.

Topic 8:  Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

8.1.1	State that oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves a gain of electrons; and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
8.1.2	Outline the process of glycolysis, including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation.
8.1.3	Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electron micrographs.
8.1.4	Explain aerobic respiration, including the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the role of NADH + H+, the electron transport chain and the role of oxygen.
8.1.5	Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
8.1.6	Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochondrion and its function.
8.2.1	Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs.
8.2.2	State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
8.2.3	Explain the light-dependent reactions.
8.2.4	Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
8.2.5	Explain the light-independent reactions.
8.2.6	Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function.
8.2.7	Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants.
8.2.8	Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

Topic 9:  Plant Science

9.1.1	Draw and label plan diagrams to show the distribution of tissues in the stem and leaf of a dicotyledonous plant.
9.1.2	Outline three differences between the structures of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants.
9.1.3	Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in the leaf and the functions of these tissues.
9.1.4	Identify modifications of roots, stems and leaves for different functions: bulbs, stem tubers, storage roots and tendrils.
9.1.5	State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral meristems.
9.1.6	Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in dicotyledonous plants.
9.1.7	Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant growth.
9.2.1	Outline how the root system provides a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake by means of branching and root hairs.
9.2.2	List ways in which mineral ions in the soil move to the root.
9.2.3	Explain the process of mineral ion absorption from the soil into roots by active transport.
9.2.4	State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose, cell turgor and lignified xylem.
9.2.5	Define transpiration.
9.2.6	Explain how water is carried by the transpiration stream, including the structure of xylem vessels, transpiration pull, cohesion, adhesion and evaporation.
9.2.7	State that guard cells can regulate transpiration by opening and closing stomata.
9.2.8	State that the plant hormone abscisic acid causes the closing of stomata.
9.2.9	Explain how the abiotic factors light, temperature, wind and humidity, affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial plant.
9.2.10	Outline four adaptations of xerophytes that help to reduce transpiration.
9.2.11	Outline the role of phloem in active translocation of sugars (sucrose) and amino acids from source (photosynthetic tissue and storage organs) to sink (fruits, seeds, roots).
9.3.1	Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a dicotyledonous animal-pollinated flower.
9.3.2	Distinguish between pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal.
9.3.3	Draw and label a diagram showing the external and internal structure of a named dicotyledonous seed.
9.3.4	Explain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed.
9.3.5	Outline the metabolic processes during germination of a starchy seed.
9.3.6	Explain how flowering is controlled in long-day and short-day plants, including the role of phytochrome.

Topic 10:  HL Genetics

10.1.1	Describe the behaviour of the chromosomes in the phases of meiosis.
10.1.2	Outline the formation of chiasmata in the process of crossing over.
10.1.3	Explain how meiosis results in an effectively infinite genetic variety in gametes through crossing over in prophase I and random orientation in metaphase I.
10.1.4	State Mendel’s law of independent assortment.
10.1.5	Explain the relationship between Mendel’s law of independent assortment and meiosis.
10.2.1	Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.
10.2.2	Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
10.2.3	Explain how crossing over between non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair in prophase I can result in an exchange of alleles.
10.2.4	Define linkage group.
10.2.5	Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes.
10.2.6	Identify which of the offspring are recombinants in a dihybrid cross involving linked genes.
10.3.1	Define polygenic inheritance.
10.3.2	Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two examples, one of which must be human skin colour.

Topic 11:  HL Human Health and Physiology

11.1.1	Describe the process of blood clotting.
11.1.2	Outline the principle of challenge and response, clonal selection and memory cells as the basis of immunity.
11.1.3	Define active and passive immunity.
11.1.4	Explain antibody production.
11.1.5	Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies and their use in diagnosis and in treatment.
11.1.6	Explain the principle of vaccination.
11.1.7	Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination.
11.2.1	State the roles of bones, ligaments, muscles, tendons and nerves in human movement.
11.2.2	Label a diagram of the human elbow joint, including cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule, named bones and antagonistic muscles (biceps and triceps).
11.2.3	Outline the functions of the structures in the human elbow joint named in 11.2.2.
11.2.4	Compare the movements of the hip joint and the knee joint.
11.2.5	Describe the structure of striated muscle fibres, including the myofibrils with light and dark bands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma.
11.2.6	Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a sarcomere, including Z lines, actin filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands.
11.2.7	Explain how skeletal muscle contracts, including the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross-bridges, the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, and the use of ATP to break cross-bridges and re-set myosin heads.
11.2.8	Analyse electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibres.
11.3.1	Define excretion.
11.3.2	Draw and label a diagram of the kidney.
11.3.3	Annotate a diagram of a glomerulus and associated nephron to show the function of each part.
11.3.4	Explain the process of ultrafiltration, including blood pressure, fenestrated blood capillaries and basement membrane.
11.3.5	Define osmoregulation.
11.3.6	Explain the reabsorption of glucose, water and salts in the proximal convoluted tubule, including the roles of microvilli, osmosis and active transport.
11.3.7	Explain the roles of the loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH (vasopressin) in maintaining the water balance of the blood.
11.3.8	Explain the differences in the concentration of proteins, glucose and urea between blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine.
11.3.9	Explain the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetic patients.
11.4.1	Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germinal epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells.
11.4.2	Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testis, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation.
11.4.3	State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis.
11.4.4	Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germinal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte.
11.4.5	Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body.
11.4.6	Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg.
11.4.7	Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen.
11.4.8	Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes.
11.4.9	Describe the process of fertilization, including the acrosome reaction, penetration of the egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction.
11.4.10	Outline the role of HCG in early pregnancy.
11.4.11	Outline early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst.
11.4.12	Explain how the structure and functions of the placenta, including its hormonal role in secretion of estrogen and progesterone, maintain pregnancy.
11.4.13	State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.
11.4.14	State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta.
11.4.15	Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including the changes in progesterone and oxytocin levels and positive feedback.

Option D:  Evolution

D.1.1	Describe four processes needed for the spontaneous origin of life on Earth.
D.1.2	Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into the origin of organic compounds.
D.1.3	State that comets may have delivered organic compounds to Earth.
D.1.4	Discuss possible locations where conditions would have allowed the synthesis of organic compounds.
D.1.5	Outline two properties of RNA that would have allowed it to play a role in the origin of life.
D.1.6	State that living cells may have been preceded by protobionts, with an internal chemical environment different from their surroundings.
D.1.7	Outline the contribution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
D.1.8	Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.
D.2.1	Define allele frequency and gene pool.
D.2.2	State that evolution involves a change in allele frequency in a population’s gene pool over a number of generations.
D.2.3	Discuss the definition of the term species.
D.2.4	Describe three examples of barriers between gene pools.
D.2.5	Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.
D.2.6	Compare allopatric and sympatric speciation.
D.2.7	Outline the process of adaptive radiation.
D.2.8	Compare convergent and divergent evolution.
D.2.9	Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution, including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
D.2.10	Describe one example of transient polymorphism.
D.2.11	Describe sickle-cell anemia as an example of balanced polymorphism.
D.3.1	Outline the method for dating rocks and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to 14C and 40K.
D.3.2	Define half-life.
D.3.3	Deduce the approximate age of materials based on a simple decay curve for a radioisotope.
D.3.4	Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates.
D.3.5	Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus including A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.
D.3.6	State that, at various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted.
D.3.7	Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties about human evolution.
D.3.8	Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during hominid evolution.
D.3.9	Distinguish between genetic and cultural evolution.
D.3.10	Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution of humans.
D.4.1	Explain how the Hardy–Weinberg equation is derived.
D.4.2	Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the Hardy–Weinberg equation.
D.4.3	State the assumptions made when the Hardy–Weinberg equation is used.
D.5.1	Outline the value of classifying organisms.
D.5.2	Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein structures for the common ancestry of living organisms.
D.5.3	Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.
D.5.4	Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock.
D.5.5	Define clade and cladistics.
D.5.6	Distinguish, with examples, between analogous and homologous characteristics.
D.5.7	Outline the methods used to construct cladograms and the conclusions that can be drawn from them.
D.5.8	Construct a simple cladogram.
D.5.9	Analyse cladograms in terms of phylogenetic relationships.
D.5.10	Discuss the relationship between cladograms and the classification of living organisms.

Option E:  Neurobiology and Behavior

E.1.1	Define the terms stimulus, response and reflex in the context of animal behaviour.
E.1.2	Explain the role of receptors, sensory neurons, relay neurons, motor neurons, synapses and effectors in the response of animals to stimuli.
E.1.3	Draw and label a diagram of a reflex arc for a pain withdrawal reflex, including the spinal cord and its spinal nerves, the receptor cell, sensory neuron, relay neuron, motor neuron and effector.
E.1.4	Explain how animal responses can be affected by natural selection, using two examples.
E.2.1	Outline the diversity of stimuli that can be detected by human sensory receptors, including mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors and photoreceptors.
E.2.2	Label a diagram of the structure of the human eye.
E.2.3	Annotate a diagram of the retina to show the cell types and the direction in which light moves.
E.2.4	Compare rod and cone cells.
E.2.5	Explain the processing of visual stimuli, including edge enhancement and contralateral processing.
E.2.6	Label a diagram of the ear.
E.2.7	Explain how sound is perceived by the ear, including the roles of the eardrum, bones of the middle ear, oval and round windows, and the hair cells of the cochlea.
E.3.1	Distinguish between innate and learned behaviour.
E.3.2	Design experiments to investigate innate behaviour in invertebrates, including either a taxis or a kinesis.
E.3.3	Analyse data from invertebrate behaviour experiments in terms of the effect on chances of survival and reproduction.
E.3.4	Discuss how the process of learning can improve the chance of survival.
E.3.5	Outline Pavlov’s experiments into conditioning of dogs.
E.3.6	Outline the role of inheritance and learning in the development of birdsong in young birds.
E.4.1	State that some presynaptic neurons excite postsynaptic transmission and others inhibit postsynaptic transmission.
E.4.2	Explain how decision-making in the CNS can result from the interaction between the activities of excitatory and inhibitory presynaptic neurons at synapses.
E.4.3	Explain how psychoactive drugs affect the brain and personality by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission.
E.4.4	List three examples of excitatory and three examples of inhibitory psychoactive drugs.
E.4.5	Explain the effects of THC and cocaine in terms of their action at synapses in the brain.
E.4.6	Discuss the causes of addiction, including genetic predisposition, social factors and dopamine secretion.
E.5.1	Label, on a diagram of the brain, the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and cerebral hemispheres.
E.5.2	Outline the functions of each of the parts of the brain listed in E.5.1.
E.5.3	Explain how animal experiments, lesions and FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scanning can be used in the identification of the brain part involved in specific functions.
E.5.4	Explain sympathetic and parasympathetic control of the heart rate, movements of the iris and flow of blood to the gut.
E.5.5	Explain the pupil reflex.
E.5.6	Discuss the concept of brain death and the use of the pupil reflex in testing for this.
E.5.7	Outline how pain is perceived and how endorphins can act as painkillers.
E.6.1	Describe the social organization of honey bee colonies and one other non-human example.
E.6.2	Outline how natural selection may act at the level of the colony in the case of social organisms.
E.6.3	Discuss the evolution of altruistic behaviour using two non-human examples.
E.6.4	Outline two examples of how foraging behaviour optimizes food intake, including bluegill fish foraging for Daphnia.
E.6.5	Explain how mate selection can lead to exaggerated traits.
E.6.6	State that animals show rhythmical variations in activity.
E.6.7	Outline two examples illustrating the adaptive value of rhythmical behaviour patterns.

Option F: Microbes and biotechnology

F.1.1	Outline the classification of living organisms into three domains.
F.1.2	Explain the reasons for the reclassification of living organisms into three domains.
F.1.3	Distinguish between the characteristics of the three domains.
F.1.4	Outline the wide diversity of habitat in the Archae, as exemplified by methanogens, thermophiles and halophiles.
F.1.5	Outline the diversity of Eubacteria, including shape and cell wall structure.
F.1.6	State, with one example, that some bacteria form aggregates that show characteristics not seen in individual bacteria.
F.1.7	Compare the structure of the cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative Eubacteria.
F.1.8	Outline the diversity of structure in viruses including: naked capsid versus enveloped capsid; DNA versus RNA; and single stranded versus double stranded DNA or RNA.
F.1.9	Outline the diversity of microscopic eukaryotes, as illustrated by Saccharomyces, Amoeba, Plasmodium, Paramecium, Euglena and Chlorella.
F.2.1	List the roles of microbes in ecosystems, including producers, nitrogen fixers and decomposers.
F.2.2	Draw and label a diagram of the nitrogen cycle.
F.2.3	State the roles of Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter and Pseudomonas denitrificans in the nitrogen cycle.
F.2.4	Outline the conditions that favour denitrification and nitrification.
F.2.5	Explain the consequences of releasing raw sewage and nitrate fertilizer into rivers.
F.2.6	Outline the role of saprotrophic bacteria in the treatment of sewage using trickling filter beds and reed bed systems.
F.2.7	State that biomass can be used as raw material for the production of fuels such as methane and ethanol.
F.2.8	Explain the principles involved in the generation of methane from biomass, including the conditions needed, organisms involved and the basic chemical reactions that occur.
F.3.1	State that reverse transcriptase catalyses the production of DNA from RNA.
F.3.2	Explain how reverse transcriptase is used in molecular biology.
F.3.3	Distinguish between somatic and germ line therapy.
F.3.4	Outline the use of viral vectors in gene therapy.
F.3.5	Discuss the risks of gene therapy.
F.4.1	Explain the use of Saccharomyces in the production of beer, wine and bread.
F.4.2	Outline the production of soy sauce using Aspergillus oryzae.
F.4.3	Explain the use of acids and high salt or sugar concentrations in food preservation.
F.4.4	Outline the symptoms, method of transmission and treatment of one named example of food poisoning.
F.5.1	Define the terms photoautotroph, photoheterotroph, chemoautotroph and chemoheterotroph.
F.5.2	State one example of a photoautotroph, photoheterotroph, chemoautotroph and chemoheterotroph.
F.5.3	Compare photoautotrophs with photoheterotrophs in terms of energy sources and carbon sources.
F.5.4	Compare chemoautotrophs with chemoheterotrophs in terms of energy sources and carbon sources.
F.5.5	Draw and label a diagram of a filamentous cyanobacterium.
F.5.6	Explain the use of bacteria in the bioremediation of soil and water.
F.6.1	List six methods by which pathogens are transmitted and gain entry to the body.
F.6.2	Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular bacterial infection using Chlamydia and Streptococcus as examples.
F.6.3	Distinguish between endotoxins and exotoxins.
F.6.4	Evaluate methods of controlling microbial growth by irradiation, pasteurization, antiseptics and disinfectants.
F.6.5	Outline the mechanism of the action of antibiotics, including inhibition of synthesis of cell walls, proteins and nucleic acids.
F.6.6	Outline the lytic life cycle of the influenza virus.
F.6.7	Define epidemiology.
F.6.8	Discuss the origin and epidemiology of one example of a pandemic.
F.6.9	Describe the cause, transmission and effects of malaria, as an example of disease caused by a protozoan.
F.6.10	Discuss the prion hypothesis for the cause of spongiform encephalopathies.

Option G: Ecology and Conservation

G.1.1	Outline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species, including temperature, water, light, soil pH, salinity and mineral nutrients.
G.1.2	Explain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species, including temperature, water, breeding sites, food supply and territory.
G.1.3	Describe one method of random sampling, based on quadrat methods, that is used to compare the population size of two plant or two animal species.
G.1.4	Outline the use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic variable.
G.1.5	Explain what is meant by the niche concept, including an organism’s spatial habitat, its feeding activities and its interactions with other species.
G.1.6	Outline the following interactions between species, giving two examples of each: competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism and mutualism.
G.1.7	Explain the principle of competitive exclusion.
G.1.8	Distinguish between fundamental and realized niches.
G.1.9	Define biomass.
G.1.10	Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of different trophic levels in an ecosystem.
G.2.1	Define gross production, net production and biomass.
G.2.2	Calculate values for gross production and net production using the equation: gross production – respiration = net production.
G.2.3	Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels.
G.2.4	Explain the small biomass and low numbers of organisms in higher trophic levels.
G.2.5	Construct a pyramid of energy, given appropriate information.
G.2.6	Distinguish between primary and secondary succession, using an example of each.
G.2.7	Outline the changes in species diversity and production during primary succession.
G.2.8	Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment, with reference to the changes occurring during primary succession.
G.2.9	Distinguish between biome and biosphere.
G.2.10	Explain how rainfall and temperature affect the distribution of biomes.
G.2.11	Outline the characteristics of six major biomes.
G.3.1	Calculate the Simpson diversity index for two local communities.
G.3.2	Analyse the biodiversity of the two local communities using the Simpson index.
G.3.3	Discuss reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an example.
G.3.4	List three examples of the introduction of alien species that have had significant impacts on ecosystems.
G.3.5	Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems.
□G.3.6	Outline one example of biological control of invasive species.
G.3.7	Define biomagnification.
G.3.8	Explain the cause and consequences of biomagnification, using a named example.
G.3.9	Outline the effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.
G.3.10	Outline the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer.
G.3.11	State that ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV radiation.
G.4.1	Explain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change.
G.4.2	Outline the factors that contributed to the extinction of one named animal species.
G.4.3	Outline the biogeographical features of nature reserves that promote the conservation of diversity.
G.4.4	Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation.
G.4.5	Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic nature reserves).
G.4.6	Outline the use of ex situ conservation measures, including captive breeding of animals, botanic gardens and seed banks.
G.5.1	Distinguish between r-strategies and K-strategies.
G.5.2	Discuss the environmental conditions that favour either r-strategies or K-strategies.
G.5.3	Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on a capture–mark–release–recapture method.
G.5.4	Describe the methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks.
G.5.5	Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks.
G.5.6	Discuss international measures that would promote the conservation of fish.

Option H: Further Human Physiology